Physiology -Chap 4- Outline

Types of Tissues and Their Origins

Four types of body tissue:

1. Epithelial: Covers body surface & lines hollow organs. Forms ducts.
   
2. Connective:
   
   1. Protects and supports body and organs.
      
   2. Bind organs together
      
   3. Stores energy reserves as fat
      
   4. Provides immunity to diseased agents
      
3. Muscular: Generates physical force to make body move
   
4. Nervous: Detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside body
   
   1. Generates actions to respond
      
   2. Maintains homeostasis
      

Epithelial tissues develop from all three P.G.L.

Connective forms from Mesoderm

Nervous is made from Ectoderm

Most cells within a tissue are anchored down, some move freely to hunt invaders. During growth and embryonic development many cells move more freely

CELL JUNCTIONS:

5 types

Tight
Junctions: Consists of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse outer surfaces of other plasma membranes together. Epithelial tissues have many tight junctions.

Adherins
Junctions: Contains plaque. Plaque attaches to membrane protiens and microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. Cadherins inserts into plaque of another plasma membrane and connects to other cadherins. In Epithelial cells junctions form extensive zones called adhesion belts.

Desmosomes: Contain plaque and have cadherins that extend into adjacent cells membranes. Unlike

Tight Junction

Adhesion belt Adherens Junctions

Gap Junctions Desmosome Junction

Basement Membrane

Hemidsmosome Junction

Adherens Junctions the plaque does not attach to microfilaments. They instead attach to intermediate

filaments that contain the protein keratin. Prevent epidermal cells from pulling apart during contraction

Hemidesmosomes: Resemble Desmosomes, but do not link adjacent cells. They look like half a Desmosome. The transmembrane glycoprotein in this junction are integrins. Integrins attach to intermediate filaments and to the protein laminin in the basement membrane (meaning Hemidsmosomes attach cells not to each other but to the basement membrane).

Gap Junctions: Membrane protein, connexins forms fluid tunnels call connexons that connect neighboring cells. Plasma membranes are not fused together tightly; there is a narrow intercellular gap.

1. Through the gap ions and small molecules can diffuse from the cytosol of one cell to another.
   
2. Gap Junctions allow cells in the tissue to communicate with each other.
   
3. Enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cells
   

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Epithelial tissue consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in single or multiple layers. Since there are so many junctions, there are little intercellular space between plasma membranes.

Different surfaces differ in structure.

1. Apical (free) surface: Faces body surface. May contain cilia or microvilli
   
2. Lateral surface: Faces adjacent cells on either side. May contain all junctions but hemidsmosomes
   
3. Basal surface: Opposite apical surface. Adhere to extracellular materials such as basement membranes.
   

The basement membrane has two layers.

1. Basal lamina: closer to and secreted by epithelial cells. Contains proteins such as collagen
   
2. Reticular lamina: Closer to underlying connective tissue and contains fibrous proteins produced by connective tissue cells called fibroblasts.
   

BASEMENT MEMBRANES AND DISEASE

Basement membranes can thicken in certain conditions due to an increase of collagen and laminin. It can lead to blindness and kidney failure if left untreated.

Epithelial cells are subjected to physical stress and injury.

High rates of cell division allows epithelial to renew itself

Epithelial jobs:

1. Protection
   
2. Filtration
   
3. Secretion
   
4. Absorption
   
5. Excretion
   

Two types of epithelial tissue:

1. Covering and lining epithelium: Outer covering of skin and some internal organs.
   
2. Glandular epithelium: Secreting portion of glands; thyroid glands, sweat glands, ect.
   

Vocab:

Primary
Germ
Layers: Three layers the tissues of the body develop from. They are the first tissue the human embryo forms

Ectoderm: One of three layers the body tissues develop from

Endoderm: One of three layers the body tissues develop from

Mesoderm: One of three layers the body tissues develop from

Cell
Junctions: Contact points between plasma membranes of tissue cells

Tight
Junctions: One of five types of junctions. Consists of web like strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse outer surfaces of other plasma membranes together. Seen in many epithelial tissues

Adherens
Junction: One of five types of junctions. Help Epithelial surfaces resist separation during contractile activities

Plaque: Dense layer of proteins on inside of plasma membrane

Cadherins: Transmembranes glycoprotein. Joins cells in Adherins Junctions

Adhesion
Belts: Circulation of the cell when Epithelial cells have adherens junctions

Desmosomes: One of five types of junctions. Contain plaque that binds to intermediate filaments that contain keratin.

Hemidesmosome: One of five types of junctions. Similar to desmosomes, but that it contains intergins instead of cadherins and attaches to laminin on the basement membrane.

Intergins: Present in Hemidsmosomes. Tranmembrane glycoprotein. Attaches to intermediate filaments on the inside and laminin on the outside.

Laminin: Protein located in the basement membrane.

Gap
Junctions: One of five types of junctions. Contains connexon forming connexins. The bond formed isn't tight. There is a gap between the membranes.

Connexins: Membrane protein used in gap junctions. Forms connexons.

Connexons: Tiny fluid filled tunnel formed by connexins. Forms gap junctions.

Apical
Surface: One of three surfaces of the epithelial. Faces body surface. Outermost surface.

Lateral Surface: One of three surfaces of the epithelial. Faces two adjacent cells on.

Basal
Surface: One of three surfaces on the epithelial. Opposite of apical. Located in the deepest layer of cells adhere to extracellular materials.

Basement
Membrane: Extracellular layer that commonly consists of two layers.

Avascular: Lacks blood supply

Covering
and
Lining
Epithelium: One of two types of epithelial tissue. Outer covering of skin.

Glandular
Epithelium: One of two types of epithelial tissue. Makes up secreting portion of glands.

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COVERING AND LINING EPITHELIUM

Two main characteristics:

1. Arrangement of cells in layers: Layer and shape of cells covering depend on the function of the cell.
   
   1. Simple Epithelium: Single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, and absorption.
      
   2. Pseudostratified Epithelium: Appears to have multiple layers of cells. Some may contain cilia and others secrete mucus.
      
   3. Stratified Epithelium: Has two or more layers that protect underlying tissues
      
2. Cell shapes:
   
   1. Squamous: Like floor tiles, thin
      
   2. Cuboidal: Shaped like cubes, may have microvilli at apical surface
      
   3. Columnar: Shaped like columns, protect underlying tissues. Specialized for absorption and secretion
      
   4. Transitional: Changes shape from flat to cuboidal as organs stretch and shrink
      

Types of covering and lining:

1. Simple
   
   1. Simple squamous: Single layer of flat cells, tiled floor, located where filtration or diffusion take place
      
      1. Endothelium: Lines heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
         
      2. Mesothelium: Forms serious membranes
         
   2. Simple cuboidal: Cell nuclei round and located in center. Performs secretion and absorption, found in organs such as thyroid gland and kidneys
      
   3. Simple columnar: Oval nuclei; comes in two forms
      
      1. Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
         
         1. W/ Microvilli: Increase rate of absorption by cell
            
         2. Goblet cells: Secretes mucus. Mucus is a lubricant for linings of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
            
      2. Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium: Also contains goblet cells. Cilia beat in unison moving things toward the throat
         
   4. Pseudostratified columnar: Nuclei are at different depths, some cells do not extend to surface, the cells that do reach the surface either secrete mucus or contain cilia.
      
2. Stratified:
   
   1. Two or more layers of cells. More durable.
      
      1. Striated squamous: Cuboidal to columnar shape in deep layers. Forms layers of skin, lining of mouth, covers tongue, part of pharynx, and vagina. For protection
         
      2. Striated cuboidal: Cells in apical layer are cube-shaped, located on ducts of sweat glands, esophageal glands, and part of male urethra. For protection and limited secretion and absorption
         
      3. Striated columnar: Irregularly shaped cells, lines part of urethra, excretory ducts of some glands, for protection and secretion
         
      4. Transitional: Ranged from squamous to cuboidal. Lines bladder and parts of ureters and urethra. It permits distension.
         

Secretion: Production and release of substances such as mucus, sweat, or enzymes

Absorption: Intake of fluids or other substances such as digested food frm. intestinal tract.

Endothelium: Kind of simple squamous. Lines heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels

Mesothelium: Kind of simple squamous. Forms serious membranes

Microvilli: Fingerlike cytoplasmic projections; increases surface area of plasma membrane

Goblet
cells: Modified columnar cells that secretes mucus

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COVERING AND LINING EPITHELIUM

Two main characteristics:

1. Arrangement of cells in layers: Layer and shape of cells covering depend on the function of the cell.
   
   1. Simple Epithelium: Single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, and absorption.
      
   2. Pseudostratified Epithelium: Appears to have multiple layers of cells. Some may contain cilia and others secrete mucus.
      
   3. Stratified Epithelium: Has two or more layers that protect underlying tissues
      
2. Cell shapes:
   
   1. Squamous: Like floor tiles, thin
      
   2. Cuboidal: Shaped like cubes, may have microvilli at apical surface
      
   3. Columnar: Shaped like columns, protect underlying tissues. Specialized for absorption and secretion
      
   4. Transitional: Changes shape from flat to cuboidal as organs stretch and shrink
      

Types of covering and lining:

1. Simple
   
   1. Simple squamous: Single layer of flat cells, tiled floor, located where filtration or diffusion take place
      
      1. Endothelium: Lines heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
         
      2. Mesothelium: Forms serious membranes
         
   2. Simple cuboidal: Cell nuclei round and located in center. Performs secretion and absorption, found in organs such as thyroid gland and kidneys
      
   3. Simple columnar: Oval nuclei; comes in two forms
      
      1. Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
         
         1. W/ Microvilli: Increase rate of absorption by cell
            
         2. Goblet cells: Secretes mucus. Mucus is a lubricant for linings of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
            
      2. Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium: Also contains goblet cells. Cilia beat in unison moving things toward the throat
         
   4. Pseudostratified columnar: Nuclei are at different depths, some cells do not extend to surface, the cells that do reach the surface either secrete mucus or contain cilia.
      
2. Stratified:
   
   1. Two or more layers of cells. More durable.
      
      1. Striated squamous: Cuboidal to columnar shape in deep layers. Forms layers of skin, lining of mouth, covers tongue, part of pharynx, and vagina. For protection
         
      2. Striated cuboidal: Cells in apical layer are cube-shaped, located on ducts of sweat glands, esophageal glands, and part of male urethra. For protection and limited secretion and absorption
         
      3. Striated columnar: Irregularly shaped cells, lines part of urethra, excretory ducts of some glands, for protection and secretion
         
      4. Transitional: Ranged from squamous to cuboidal. Lines bladder and parts of ureters and urethra. It permits distension.
         

Secretion: Production and release of substances such as mucus, sweat, or enzymes

Absorption: Intake of fluids or other substances such as digested food frm. intestinal tract.

Endothelium: Kind of simple squamous. Lines heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels

Mesothelium: Kind of simple squamous. Forms serious membranes

Microvilli: Fingerlike cytoplasmic projections; increases surface area of plasma membrane

Goblet
cells: Modified columnar cells that secretes mucus

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Glandular Epithelium

Function: Secretion

There are two types of glands: Endocrine & Exocrine

Endocrine: Enter the interstitial fluid and diffuse into bloodstream (no ducts)

*Secretions=Hormones: Regulates many metabolic and physiological activities in maintaining HS

Exocrine: Secrete products into ducts that go to surface of lining epithelium

*Secretions=Sweat; mucus, oil, saliva; ect.

Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands

Classification: Unicellular or Multi-cellular

Unicellular: Single celled

* Goblet cells: Secretes mucus directly to apical surface

Multi-cellular: Composed of many cells that form a distinctive micro-cellular structure

Categorized according to two criteria:

* Ducts can be branched or un-branched

* The shape of secretory portions

> Simple Glands: The duct of the gland does not branch out

> Compound Glands: The duct does branch

>Tubular Glands: Tubular secretory parts

>Acinar Glands: Rounded secretory parts

>Tubuloacinar Glands: Have both tubular and rounded secretory parts

-Simple Glands:

a. Simple tubular: Tubular secretory is straight and attaches to a single un-branched duct

b. Simple branched tubular: Tubular secretory is branched. Single duct.

c. Simple coiled tubular: Tubular secretory coiled. Attached to single un-branched duct.

d. Simple Acinar: Secretory is round. Single un-branched duct

e. Simple branched acinar: Rounded and branched secretory. Attached to single un-branched duct.

-Compound Glands:

a. Compound tubular: Secretory is tubular. Attached to branched duct.

b. Compound acinar: Secretory it round and attaches to branched duct.

c. Compound tubuloacinar: Secretory is both round and tubular. Attached to branched duct.

Functional Classification of Exocrine Glands

Function: Based on how secretions are released

Secretion Types:

* Merocrine gland secretion: Synthesized on ribosome attached to RER;

go through Golgi complex; and released through exocytosis

* Apocrine gland secretion: Accumulate at surface, portion is pinched off from cell for release.

* Holocrine gland secretion: Accumulates in cytosol. When cell is matures it ruptures and becomes the product.

Connective Tissue

Functions: Binds together, supports, and strengthens other tissues

Features of Connective Tissue

Two elements: Cells and extra-cellular matrix

Extra-cellular Matrix (E-CM): * Located between widely spaced cells

* Consists of protein fibers and ground substance

* Secreted by connective tissue cells & determines tissue's qualities

*Does not occur on body surface

*Highly vascular (lots of blood)

Connective Tissue Cells

Mesenchymal cells give rise to cells of CT

Types of connective tissue:

• Fibroblasts: Large flat cells with branching processes. Secretes fibers and ground substances of the E-CM
  
• Macrophage: Develop from monocytes (WBC); Irregular shape w/ short branches; can engulf bacteria
  
  • Fixed Macrophage: Reside in particular tissue
    
  • Wandering macrophage: Can move through tissue
    
• Plasma Cells: Develop from lymphocyte B. Secrete anti-bodies.
  
• Mast Cells: Produce histamine (chem. That dialates small blood vessels as part of inflammation response)
  
• Adipocytes: Fat cells; nective tissue cells that store triglycerides
  
• White Blood Cells (WBC): Migrate frm. Blood into CT
  

VOCAB.

Gland: Cell(s) that secrete substances into ducts, onto a surface, or into the blood; either endocrine or exocrine

Endocrine Glands: Produces hormones that regulate various body activities

Exocrine: Produces substances such as sweat, oil, ect. Uses ducts

Unicellular: Single celled exocrine glands

Multi-cellular: Composed of many cells that form a distinctive micro-cellular structure

Simple Glands: Type of multi-cellular exocrine gland: The duct of the gland does not branch out

Compound Glands: Type of multi-cellular exocrine gland: The duct does branch

Tubular Glands: Type of multi-cellular exocrine gland: Tubular secretory parts

Acinar Glands: Type of multi-cellular exocrine gland: Rounded secretory parts

Tubuloacinar Glands: Type of multi-cellular exocrine gland: Have both tubular and rounded secretory parts

Simple Tubular: Tubular secretory is straight and attaches to a single un-branched duct

Simple Branched Tubular: Tubular secretory is branched. Single duct.

Simple Coiled Tubular: Tubular secretory coiled. Attached to single un-branched duct.

Simple Acinar: Secretory is round. Single un-branched duct

Simple Branched Acinar: Rounded and branched secretory. Attached to single un-branched duct.

Compound Tubular: Secretory is tubular. Attached to branched duct.

Compound Acinar: Secretory it round and attaches to branched duct.

Compound Tubuloacinar: Secretory is both round and tubular. Attached to branched duct.

Merocrins Glands: Synthesized on ribosome attached to RER; go through Golgi complex; and released

through exocytosis

Apocrine Glands: Accumulate at surface, portion is pinched off from cell for release.

Holocrine Glands: Accumulates in cytosol. When cell is matures it ruptures and becomes the product.

Connective Tissue: Binds together, supports, and strengthens other tissues

Extracellular Matrix: Fills area between widely spaced cells

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Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix

Two major components

Ground Substance:

Fluid, semi-fluid, gelatinous, or calcified

Plays role in how tissues develop, migrate, proliferate, and change shape

Contains glycosaminoglycans-GAGs-polysaccharides

• GAGs associated w/ proteoglycan
  
• GAGs trap water
  
  • Hyaluronic substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain shape of eyes
    
  • Chondroitin Sulfate provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin, and blood vessels
    
  • Dermatan sulfate is in skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves
    
  • Keratan sulfate is in bone, cartilage, and cornea of eye
    
  • Adhesion sulfate links components of ground substance together and to surface of cells
    
    • Fibronectin is the main adhesion protein
      

Fibers

Three types: Collagen; elastic; reticular

• Collagen
  
  • Resists pulling forces
    
  • Allows tissue flexibility
    
  • Occur in parallel bundles
    
• Elastic
  
  • Branch to form networks
    
  • Can be stretched to past 150% of original length and go back
    
• Reticular
  
  • Consists of collagen in fine bundles w/ coating of glycoprotein
    
  • Provide support for walls of blood vessels and form network around cells in some tissues
    

Classification of Connective Tissues

1. Embryonic CT: present during the development of a human; during embryonic growth (DUH!)
   
2. Mesenchyme: forms all other CT
   
3. Mucous CT: Umbilical cord of fetus
   
4. Matture CT: Cells arise from mesechyme; found in newborn
   
5. Loose CT: loosely intertwined
   
   1. Areolar CT: All three fibers present; forms subcutaneous layer, layer of tissue that attachesskini to underlying tissues and organs
      
   2. Adipose tissue: Specialized in storing fats. Reduces heat loss through skin. Supports and protects various organs
      
   3. Reticular CT: Forms stroma of organs, bind together smooth muscle tissue cells; filters and removes worn-out blood cells in the spleen and microbes in lymph nodes
      
6. Dense CT:
   
   1. Dense regular CT: Provides strong attachment between various structures
      
   2. Dense irregular CT: Randomly arranged collagen and fibroblasts; provides strength
      
   3. Elastic CT: Allows stretching of various organs
      
7. Cartilage
   
   1. Hyaline cartilage: Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, as well as flexibility and support
      
   2. Fibrocartilage: Support and fusion
      
   3. Elastic cartilage: Gives support and maintains shape
      
8. Bone tissue: Support, protection, storage, houses blood-forming tissues, serves as levers that act w/ muscle tissue to enable movement
   
9. Liquid CT:
   
   1. Blood tissue: Red blood cells transport O2 and CO2; WBC involved in allergic reactions and immune system responses, platelets essential for clotting of blood
      
   2. Lymph
      

• Compact Bone:
  
  • Osteon/haversian system
    
    • Lamellae
      
      • Concentric rings of E-CM that consists of mineral salts
        
      • Responsible for compact nature
        
    • Lacunae
      
      • Small spaces between lamellae that contain mature bone cells; osteocytes
        
    • Canaliculi
      
      • Network of minute canals containing processes of osteocytes
        
    • Central Canal
      
      • Contains blood vessels and nerves
        
• Spongy bone
  
  • Lacks osteons
    
  • Columns of bone called trabeculae
    
    • Contains lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
      

Liquid Connective Tissue

• Blood
  
  • Liquid E-CM called blood plasma
    
  • In the plasma are RBC, WBC, and platelets
    
• Lymph
  
  • EC fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels
    

VOCAB:

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs): Polsaccharides collectively in matrix

Proteoglycan: Forms core protein and GAGS project from proteins

Hyaluronic : Binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain shape of eyes

Chondroitin: Provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin, and blood vessels

Dermatan
Sulfate: In skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves

Keratan
Sulfate: In bone, cartilage, and cornea of eye

Adhesion
Sulfate: Links components of ground substance together and to surface of cells

Fibronectin: Main adhesion protein

Adipocytes: specialized cells for storing fats

Chondrocytes: Cells of mature cartilage

Lacunae: Little spaces in the matrix where chondrocytes hang out

Perichondrium: Membrane of dense irregular CT that covers surface of most cartilage

Interstitial Growth: A type of cartilage growth; cartilage increase in size due to division of existing chondrocytes

Appostitional Growth: Type of cartilage growth; activity in cells in the inner chondrogenic layer leads to growth

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Muscular Tissue

Produces body movement, maintains posture, and generates heat

• Muscular Tissue
  
  • Consists of muscle fibers
    
  • Produces body movement, maintains posture, and generates heat
    
  • Three types
    
    • Skeletal
      
      • Attached to bones of skeleton
        
      • Striations: Alternating light and dark bands w/in fibers
        
      • Voluntary because it can contract or relax by conscious control
        
      • Cylindrical
        
      • Many nuclei at periphery
        
    • Cardiac
      
      • Forms walls of heart
        
      • Striated
        
      • Involuntary; contractions are not controlled
        
      • Fibers are branched and usually only have one central nucleus, though, it can have two
        
      • Attach end to end by transverse thickening, called intercalated discs
        
    • Smooth
      
      • Located in walls of hollow internal structures; blood vessels, airways, ect.
        
      • Contraction narrows lumen of blood vessels, break down and move food, move fluids through body, and eliminate wastes
        
      • Involuntary
        
      • Nonstriated
        
      • Small, thickest at middle, tapering at each end
        

Nervous Tissue

Two types of cells: Neurons & neuroglia

• Neurons
  
  • Sensitive to various stimuli
    
  • Converts stimuli to electric signals called action potential
    
  • Three body parts of neuron
    
    • Cell body
      
      • Has nucleus & other organelles
        
    • Dendrites
      
      • Tapered, branched, short cell processes
        
      • Receiving end
        
    • Axons
      
      • Single, thin cylindrical, possibly long processes
        
• Neuroglia
  
  • Do not generate or conduct nerve impulses
    

Excitable Cells

Cells the exhibit electricity are considered excitable cells

• Neurons and muscle fibers are considered excitable cells
  
  • The show electrical excitability
    
• Action potential can move through the plasma membrane of a neuron due to voltages presence
  
• Neurons produce neurotransmitters with they are electrically excited
  
• Muscle fibers contract when this happens
  

  
  

Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis

Replacement of worn-out, damaged, or dead cells

• Tissue repair
  
  • New cells come from division of stroma, supporting CT, or parenchyma
    
  • Each type of cell has it's own way of replenishing old cells
    
    • Epithelial:
      
      • Stem cells can divide to replace lost or damaged cells
        
      • Mature cells can go through cell division
        
    • Connective:
      
      • Continuous capacity for regeneration
        
    • Muscular
      
      • Muscular is poor at regenerating cells
        
    • Nervous:
      
      • Poorest capacity
        

Aging and Tissues

• Tissues heal faster and leave less scars when young
  
• E-C change w/ age
  
• W/ age more cross links form, contributes to stiffening and loss of elasticity
  

VOCAB:

Muscular
Tissue: Consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers that use ATP to generate force.

Neurons: Building blocks of the brain; one of two nervous system cell type

Action Potential = Nerve
Impulses

Neuroglia: Type of nervous tissue cell; does not conduct nerve impulses

Excitable Cells: Neurons and muscle fibers; hey exhibit electrical excitability

Electrical Excitability: Ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals (action potential)

Parenchyma: cells that constitute functioning part of tissue or organ

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