AP Government -Module Notes- Chap 6 Parts 1-4

Lesson 19: The Nature of a President 3/31/08 (35 minutes)

Section One - Qualifications and Qualities

• 35+ years old, natural born US citizen, and living in the US for 14 years before they become president (does not have to be consecutive years, just total)
  
• must satisfy three audiences
  
  • politicians
    
  • party activists
    
  • the public
    
• has five main roles
  
  • head of state
    
  • chief executive
    
  • commander-in-chief
    
  • diplomat
    
  • legislator
    
• Richard Neustadt: political science/historian who said that a president's most vital power is the ability to persuade
  
  • Harry Truman said he spent all of his time trying to get people to do what they were supposed to do in the first place
    
• Clinton Rossiter: political scientist who said a president has to be able to multitask
  
• James MacGregor Burns: presidential biographer who said presidents must have a clear, focused agenda that can be achieved during his term
  
• James David Barber: political scientist who said presidents who have a clear agenda and purpose, are active, and have a positive perception of the position are more likely to be seen as strong leaders
  

Section Two - Rules and Contingencies

• there are two ways to become president
  
  • election: must recieve a majority of votes in the Electoral College; most common method
    
  • succession: vice president gains presidential powers (but not title) if the president is unable to complete his term
    
    • VP John Tyler: In 1841 took title and presidential powers when President William Henry Harrison died; set precedent for succession
      
    • Twenty-fifth Amendment: made in 1967 it stated that if a president passes away, resigns, or is impeached by both houses of Congress, the vice president will become president. It also says that the vice president can assume presidential responsibilities if he and a majority of the Cabinet members concur that the president is incapacitated or if the president declares himself incapacitated (vice president and Cabinet members must send a written declaration to the Senate President Pro Tempore and the Speaker of the House to gain power. president must send a written declaration to the Senate President Pro Tempore and the Speaker of the House to regain his powers, but Congress can keep him from regaining his powers with a two-thirds vote if the majority of the cabinet do not think the president should regain his power)
      
    • Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry Truman, Lyndon Johnson, and Gerald Ford have become president through succession in the twentieth century
      
    • Presidential Succession Act of 1947: if the vice president cannot fulfill role of president it goes to the the Speaker of the House, then the President Pro Tempore of the Senate, then the members of the cabinet until someone is able to fill the role
      
      • Gerald Ford took on role when Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned and then President Nixon resigned for his involvement in the Watergate scandal
        
    • vice presidents can also be succeeded, a new vice president is nominated by the president and then the nominee must be approved by Congress
      
• impeachment: a way to remove a president from power. This includes filing formal charges against the president and conducting a trial, and requires a majority vote from the House followed by a two-thirds vote fromt the Senate
  
  • a president can be impeached for treason, bribery, or high crimes and misdemeanors
    
  • Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton are the only presidents to be impeached (for both the House voted to impeach, Senate did not convict); Richard Nixon would have been impeached but he resigned first
    
• president is paid a salary and an expense allowance set by Congress; president cannot accept gifts for fulfilling his office (to avoid bribery)
  
  • salary cannot change while he is in office (so Congress cannot control the president by increasing or decreasing salary)
    
  • salary changes based on inflation, but in 2004 was $400,000 with a $50,000 expense allowance. The president also has access to a Boeing 747 and a helicopter, is given Secret Service protection for himself and his family, has total health care, and receives a pension. President must pay income tax on both salary and expense allowance as he is a citizen.
    
• term limit: president can only serve two four-year terms in office
  
  • precedent set by George Washington and continued by the first 31 presidents
    
  • Twenty-second Amendment: in 1951 the term limit was added to the Constitution following President  Franklin D. Roosevelt being elected four times
    
    • vice president who succeeds a president can serve up to 10 years if succession occurs toward the end of the presidential term
      

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

EXPRESS ROLES

+Roles of the President: Commander-In-Chief, Chief Executive, Head of State, Chief Diplomat, and Legislator

+Commander-in-Chief: Article II, section 2; the president controls the military by working through the Department of Defense

+Established by the first Congress to advise the president on military matters

+Members of the Department of Defense include the secretary of defense (Also a cabinet members and the Joint Chiefs of Staff)

+Responsible for giving the president advice in his role as Commander-in-Chief

+President also works closely with the House and Senate committees on armed services and the appropriation committees that designate funding for the military

+Power of control over the military is shared with Congress

+Congress has the power of appropriations and to declare war

+Used this power in 1941 for WWII

+War Powers Resolution stipulates that a president must get Congressional approval if he wants to commit troops on an emergency basis

+President appeals to the public prompt Congress to give him powers to conduct war when he sees fit

+President also exercises power over military leaders to ensure that national security goals are met

+Chief Executive: Article II, Section 1 and 3; Champion of the U.S. Constitution

+Sworn to uphold and defend its laws and make sure that they are executed

+Administrator and Crisis Manager can be seen as extensions

+Admin: President is the head of an immense Bureaucracy, which includes the Cabinet, government agencies, commissions, and other entities

+Crisis Manager: President handles national crises

+Pres. is judged by the world and the nation on how well he handles these situations

+Head of State and Chief Diplomat: Article II, Section 3; Attends state dinners, acts as the ceremonial leader of the nation, and meets with foreign leaders/meeting with foreign diplomats, appointing ambassadors, and fulfilling obligations to negotiate treaties, agreements, and understandings with foreign powers

+Represents the U.S. at official functions, such as funerals or weddings of important foreign officials, treaty signings, and goodwill trips abroad

+Pres can enter into executive agreements which do NOT require the senate's approval

+Expand existing legislation or treaties

+Legislature: Article II Section, 3; the president must present to Congress a State of the Union message each year

 
 

+Having so many roles limits the president's time

+They are usually so busy that they react to crisis situations as they occur

+The demands on his time usually requires the pres to set aside his Agenda, limiting his time for promoting his policies

 
 

 
 

TRADITIONAL ROLES AND SPECIAL POWERS

+Pres is the national head of his political party

+Role carries special privileges and responsibilities

+Privileges: Having a heavy influence on the party's platform, choosing party leaders at the national committee level, and becoming the goodwill ambassador for the party by building relationships with states and local party leaders

+Enjoys an unchallenged bid for the second term

+Responsabilities: Making speeches on his party's behalf, traveling around the U.S> to help state and local party affiliates raise money, and campaigning in off-year elections

+Presidential coattails

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Executive Offices and Staff

-Main executive offices are located in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building (Next door to the white house)

-Offices are runned by official appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate

-Three main offices:

-Office of Management and Budget: Helps the president draft proposed budget for Congress by reviewing legislation, regulations, and proposed budgets

-National Security Council: Created in response to intelligence lapses during WWII as an effort to better coordinate intelligence gathering

-Oversees American foreign policy and security issues, helps the president manage crisis, and makes sure national security policies and implemented

-Council of Economic Advisors: Helps the president develop an economic plan for the nation

-Creates the economic report of the President

-Also houses the office of the United States Trade Representative: Negotiates trade with foreign powers and create implements and trade policies

-President's staff is located in the West Wing of the White House

-The president appoints staff members and they do not require congressional confirmation

-Chief of Staff: Highest ranking member of the white House staff

-Maybe be very powerful and firmly control the White House or may just be one of the president's advisors and have a less powerful role

-Staff is divided into a number of specific functions that help the president organize and manage the executive branch

-Ex: Political advisors: Speech writers, ect.

-Ex: Policy officers: Advisors to the presidents for specific policy issues (National security council and Council of economic Advisors)

-Appointed by the president and do not require Senate confirmation

-Ex: Support staff: Secretarial staff, kitchen personnel, ect.

 
 

 
 

Presidential Management Models:

-Political scientists have examined several models or how the presidents run the White House and control administrations

-Pyramid Model: Based on a strict military-like chain of command that emphasizes a powerful Chief-of-Staff

-President is on top of the pyramid with the Chief of Staff running the White House staff with a great deal of authority and acts as a clearing house for information and access to the president

-Advantages: receives information through the Chief of Staff and is not burdened with the details of running their white House

-Disadvantages: President may not get all of the information he might need

-Chief of Staff could neglect to of choose not to send on information to the president

-Hub-and-Spoke Model: Can be visualized as a circular structure

-Based on the New Deal White House system of management

-Has the president playing a dominant role in the everyday happenings in the White House

-Chief of Staff has diminished power and importance and is usually less well known to the public

-Demands that the president have very strong leadership skills and an eye for detail

-Advantage: President directly controls his administration

-Disadvantage: President can loose sight of the "forest for the trees"

-Too many sources for one person to act upon

-Ad Hoc Structure: Combines leadership and management tactics that the CEO of

a large corporation might use

-Circular Structure: Staff and advisors report directly to the Oval Office

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Approval Ratings and Public Perception:

-New president have high approval ratings for the first 100 days

-because the electorate expected that the new pres will address the problems of the nation with vigor and carry out promises made during the campaign

-During this time the pres can honestly say that he has the mandate of the people since they have just elected him to office

-exceptions to this theory occur when a president is elected president even though he did not receive the popular vote

-Mandate Theory: Does not work in this case

-President tries to gauge the publics response to his policies and proposals

-They turn to approval polls: Private polling organizations regularly conduct

-Media also tracks the presidents approval ratings and reports it to the people

-Polls help the president to shape policy, the media to spot problems in the new administration, and the people to make judgments about the president

-Presidents are no longer automatically granted concessions from Congress during their first 1100 days in office

-They no can expect to have to negotiate to the their legislative agenda positively considered by Congress

-A strong economy nearly always leads to high approval ratings

-Low taxes and inflation, high employment rates, steady cost of living, absence of recession and a strong stock market are all elements the encourage a positive view of the president

-National Crisis can raise a presidents rating if he handles it well

-Americans traditionally "rally around the flag" and support the president in emergency

-Foreign travel can boost a president's popularity because a trip abroad and also trigger a "rally around the flag" effect

-Americans feel a sense of pride when they see foreign crowds cheering for a US president and are angry when foreign nationals demonstrate against their Commander-in-Chief

-Foreign difficulties can address a president's public approval as well

-Failure in foreign policy can cause the public to extend disapproval to a president's policies in general

-Scandal can dampen public enthusiasm for a president

-Perception that the president is unable to fulfill campaign promises can damage his approval rating

-During the heat of campaign politicians can often make lofty pledges that are difficult to keep even in ideal situations

-Prolonged war or overseas conflict that has no foreseeable end can damage a president's approval rating

-People will give high approval at the start, it will drop

 
 

 
 

 
 

AP Government: Chap 6-Module

Composition of the Senate:

• Congress is made up two legislative houses
  
  • House of Representatives and the Senate
    
  • 100 senators, two from each state
    
  • Less than 1/4 the number of seats as the House
    
  • Senators represent a larger base of constituents than House members do
    
    • Senators must be at least 30 years of age
      
    • Must be resident of the state they're representing
      
    • Must have been US resident for at least nine years
      
    • Only 1/3 of the senate is up for reelection at a time
      
  • In the early years the senate thought they were superior to the House and they even snubbed Washington when he tried to use them for an advisory board
    
  • The House has often viewed the Senate as snobbish
    
    • House was designed to directly represent the will of the people and was therefore chosen by popular election
      
    • Senators were expected to represent the will and interest of those in power in a given state
      
    • Since the system for electing senators became corrupt, the 17th amendment was added in 1913 stating that senators shall be elected by the people through popular election
      
  • House members and senators tend to be white, male, wealthy, and have a law or business background
    
  • Congressional representation is described as substantive rather than descriptive representation
    

     
     

  Power, Committees, and Debates
  

• Power in the Senate is not as clearly defined as it is in the House, and it's more widely dispersed
  
• Constitution makes the VP the president of the Senate
  
  • The real power is held by the majority and minority leaders who dictate legislative agenda
    
  • The party whips are the senators who ensure good communication among party members and work with the party leaders to urge members to vote with the party on key issues
    
  • Committee and sub-committee chairpersons also command significant power
    
• Constitution delegates specific powers to the senate
  
  • Power gives the Senate particular authority and influence over the president and executive department
    
  • Senate has power to confirm the most important presidential appointments
    
  • "Senatorial courtesy" is the practice whereby the president before making a judicial appointment in a particular state
    
  • When a candidate has made it through senate approval a simple Senate majority is required to confirm the appointment
    
  • Also has the right to confirm treaties and try impeached officers
    
  • 2/3 votes is required for a treaty confirmation
    
• Senate committees operate similarly to the House committees
  
  • 16 standing committees
    
  • Senators try to serve on committees that will allow them to affect legislation that will impact their home state
    
• Senate is different in how it conducts business and determines legislation
  
• Senate has held itself out to be a contemplative body that is willing to spend more time discussing
  
• Senate has opened and unrestricted debate on bills
  
• Filibuster: Strategy used to lock legislation
  
  • Occurs when opponents of a proposed piece of legislation debate the topic as long as possible to prevent senate from voting
    
  • Filibuster can be deterred
    
    • Motion for cloture (vote to limit debate and end a filibuster can be entertained in the Senate
      
    • Senators voting usually vote along strict partisan lines and requires 3/5 majority to pass
      

       
       

       
       

  Route of a Bill through Congress
  

• Bill: Piece of legislation that has been proposed, but not passed
  
• Bills can come from many sources, but only the congress have the right to introduce them for consideration
  
• Only pass 5% of bills proposed
  
• Two types:
  
  • Public: affects all citizens and encompass such issues such as taxes and how government money is spent
    
  • Private: Affect small groups, individuals or places. Bills may appropriate money owed to citizens
    
• Congress passes resolutions
  
  • Uses resolutions to state opinions on matters, change the procedures of their individual bodies, and address issues within the houses
    
  • Since resolutions pertain to the house of Congress, they are not laws, and president does not have to sign them
    
  • Joint Resolution: employed to address incidental or short-term matters
    
    • Once passed by both houses of Congress, a joint resolution becomes law, so the pres doesn't need to sign it
      
  • Concurrent Resolutions: Address situations in which the houses of Congress must act together
    
    • Congress issues concurrent resolutions to state its position on matters of foreign policy
      
      • Differ from joint resolutions in that once passed they do not become laws
        
      • Pres doesn't need to sign
        
• After bills have been logged, the Speaker of the House assigns them to committees based on the nature of the bills
  
  • Matches each bill's content to a committee for consideration
    
• Assigning bills to committees can be difficult when bills have overlapping area of concern
  
• Committee assignment can be critical because the committees sort through bills and determine which ones will be considered
  
• Once in committee a bill moves to a special sub-committee for consideration
  
  • Examines the bill, holds hearings, and adds amendments
    
  • The sub-committee votes on the bill
    
  • If approved the bill returns to the full committee for final discussion and approval
    
• Rules Committee: Acts as the legislative clearinghouse
  
  • Assigns calendar date for the bill and rules that will limit how long the bill can be debated
    
  • Also decides not to assign rules for bills
    
• Then passes to the House floor
  
  • Either the House can act as a Committee of the Whole or the House can debate, amend, and put the bill to a vote
    
• Committee of the Whole: members of the House become one large committee
  
  • Accelerate the legislative process because only 100 members need to be present
    
  • When the house converts to the COTW the speaker becomes a member of the committee and a different rep. acts as the committee chair
    
  • COTW cannot pass a bill, so after the Committee finished discussion on a bill, its member disband
    
• There are several methods of voting:
  
  • Voice vote: shouting 'yea' or 'nay'
    
    • Speaker declares outcome, but votes of individuals is not recorded
      
  • Teller vote: walk between two "tellers" appointed by the Speaker
    
    • Those voting in favor of the bill go first followed by those who are opposed
      
  • When one or more members disagree with the tally from voice vote the house holds another vote by division or standing
    
  • Roll-call vote: when one 1/5 of the house is present
    
    • Members respond individually with "yea" or "nay" when their names are called -Recorded
      
• If the whole House approves a bill, the bill moves to the Senate
  
• Senate acts on the bill like the house does
  
  • Assigned to a committee (uses same vote methods)
    
• Four differences:
  
  • Senate does have a Speaker of the house, so the Majority Leader confers with the Minority Leader to decide which committee will handle a bill
    
  • Senators can add unlimited amendments to a bill including ones that do not relate to the context
    
  • Reps can serve on only one major committee at a time
    
  • Senate does not have a Rule Committee to limit debate time
    

     
     

  Veto Power and Judicial Review
  

• After both the House and the Senate approve a bill it moves onto the president for his action
  
• Four actions the pres can take
  
  • Pres can sign the bill into law
    
  • Veto the law
    
    • If he vetoes the bill it returns to its origin along with an explanation for the veto
      
    • Congress can accept the veto or it can vote to override the president's decision
      
      • Needs 2/3 vote
        
  • The bill sits on the president's desk for ten days excluding Sundays at the end of which it becomes law
    
• Pres might choose to let the bill be law if it is highly controversial and contrary to his campaign promises
  
• Constitution provides that the pres can use a pocket veto
  
• Although the Congress can pass a bill and the pres can sign it into law
  
  • Judicial branch has final word
    
  • Judicial review provides that the Supreme Court can declare a law unconstitutional
    
  • Many laws have failed judicial review
    
  • Many groups lobby heavily for and against bills during all stages of the legislative process
    
  • Additionally the public can act as lobbyists by sending letters and e-mails and by making phone calls to legislatures
    
• Congress members can also be called lobbyists by making deals with their fellow legislators
  
  • Sparring and deal making can be frenzied in cases of port-barrel legislation
    

Government -Chap 5-Module 3

The Electoral College
-Deciding how the president would be elected caused a lot of debate:
-Information was too hard to disseminate to the entire country
-Did not want congress to directly elect the president
-Believedelections held in each state assembly would just result in nominating a "favorite son"
-All led to electoral college
-Constitution says that a group of representatives, electors, from each sates and the District of Columbie shall assemble every fours years for presidential election
-Number of electors is electors is equal to the number of congressman for each state
-Supposed to vote according to the will of their constituents
-Constitution originally required each electors to vote for two separate candidates
-The highest one would be president the second place winner would be VP
-12th ammendment in 1804 changed this
-All but two states have a winner-take-all system
-Main and Nebraska split their votes based on the candidates statewide performance
-Electors meet six weeks after the popular vote to vote
-There are a total of 538 votes
-If no candidate gets 270, the House determines the winner
-Has happened only two: 1800 and 1824
2000 Election:
-Al Gore won popular vote, but Bush got the electoral vote
-Criticism of Electoral College:
-Large states have more influence
-Small states feel ignored
-States that have a dominent political party have greater power
-Benifits:
-Easy to find a winner
-Recounts are rare
-Maintains a two-party system
-Popular Vote:
-Many candidates
-The winner would be unlikely to receive more than half all votes
-The president would hardly be one that could clam his election was a "mandate" from the people

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Primaries, Caucuses, an the Conventions

• Process is done through primary election:
• Most common:
• Three types:
• Open: Voters can cast ballots for a candidate from any political party
• Closed: Voters may only vote for candidates representing the political party with which the voter is registered
• Blanket: Candidates from both parties are listed on the same ballot

• Caucuses:
• Selected members of a political party represent the voters will
• Only 12 states use
• Corrupt wrought by political machines stopped

• Primaries and Caucuses:
• Iowa Caucus/New Hampshire Primary:
• Held in late January or early Feb.
• Those who do well will gain momentum and get a boost in support
• Critics believe that the two states hold too much power the elections
• Elections suffer because many candidates withdrawn after doing poorly at these elections

• Super Tuesday:
• Second Tuesday in March
• Clear favorite in front
• Trailing candidates will usually withdraw
• Critics:
• Early timing: Extends the length of the campaign forcing candidates to need more money
• Voters lose interest with the extended election time
• Voters will their vote is worthless because those voting at the end will already have a single candidate singled out

• National conventions:
• Held for two reasons:
• Party platform: Set of directions, values, and tenets the party believes in, and intends to promote during the remainder of th campaign
• Create unity
• Establish agenda

• Candidate selection:
• Official nomination of party's presidential and vice presidential candidates:
• Vote taken among delegates, which cast a vote for the candidate selected in the states primary of caucus
• If the vote does not get a winner a second vote is taken in which the delegates can vote for who ever they want
• A mere formality

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General Elections:

• After convention the candidates are ready to go
• Tuesday after the first Monday in November
• Debates, maneuvering, posturing, and posing takes place
• Most elections feature an incumbent against the challenger
  
• Incumbents Presidents:
• Advantages:
• Free press coverage
• Acting presidential at national and international conferences and meeting to present themselves as confident and capable
• The can improve image through crisis management
  
• Credit claiming, when they get credit for positive events they may or may not have influenced
• Disadvantage:
• Blame for economy
• Endure policy criticism
• Approval rating decreases over term of office
• Challengers:
• Advantage:
  
• Able to attack the presidents policy record
• Promote their own political record
• Momentum from primaries and caucuses hat can fuel a challenger's surge in polls
• Extensive media exposure in the true primary
• Claim of being Washington outsider to get the trust of those who don't trust the government
• Carter and Clinton
• Disadvantage:
• Difficult to raise money for campaign because people are less willing to sponsor an uncertain campaign
• Have not been able to prove they can succeed at a national and international level
• Regionalism: Identified with where they come from
• Third party candidates

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TERMS TO KNOW:
Horserace reporting: Practice that occurs in the media where candidates must finish in the top three of the primary to continue to receive media attention

Government -Chap 5-Module 2

Incumbancy
-Congressmen not considered a career early on
-Now highly sought after
-80-90% of house elections are won by incumbents -usually succeed
-Sophmore Surge: Candidates with modereate success during first term can win 8-10% more votes
-More prevelant in house than senate
-Senates: More obstacles
-Less individual time with voters
-Instituants spread thourgh whole state rather than just a district
-Better chance:
-Voters think they will be reelected and vote for them anyways
-97-98: PAC: Donated 158.3 million donations to incumbants and 21.4 new runners
-Free publicity:
-Press conferences
-Congressional speeches
-Introduction of bills
-Junkets intheir home districts
-Free postage:
-Point acheivements
-Stress policy making records
-Highlight any porj-barrel legislation brought into district
-Pace work: directly helping people
-All candidates must focus their energy on motivated voters: Only 37% of people vote during non-predential yeat elections


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House and Senate Elections:
-535 people in house and senates
-435 people are in the house
-1929: number reached 435 and it was decided to keep that number
-The number of electors per states is determined by the population porpotions
-it is determined every 4 years
-Must live in distrcit they will represent:
-Must meet constituants: Gender, ethnicity, party identification, policatl experience qualifications
-How they meet these states determines how well they match representing the district
-Marginal districs:
-Winner typically wins less than 55% of the vote
-Safe distrcits:
-Winner gains more than 55% of the vote
-Number of reps. not regulated by the constitution, the senate is:
-Senate:
-Every 2 years 1/3 of the seat go up for election
-Campaigns cost 5-7milion dollars
-Everytime a seat opens there is crazy compitition for the seat
-Which every party has the most reps. in the congress controls it

Government-Chap5-Module1-

Cost of Elections:

• Rare for an individual to run successfully by merely collecting signatures and placing his or her name on ballot
• Must be able to spend money to really run
• Election costs continually increase due to the amount of time and effort needed for a successful campaign
• Result in a need for greater fund raising
• Need ample funding because candidates must build a campaign organization as ell as create campaign exposure
• Other costs include legal and accounting fees and interest on loans taken out
• Create Exposure:
• Travel to meet with voters and interest groups and create materials such as signs, fliers, letters, and media advertisements
• Little evidence that tv ads actually work
• Increasing exposure allows name familiarity, which translates to a better chance of being elected
• Work to receive publicity by making newsworthy appearances in their community

• No apparent correlation between the amount of money spent and election
• In presidential the big spender does not always win
• Congressional elections: amount of money spent can increase chances of election

• Employ a variety of fund raising tactics to finance their campaigns
• Direct mail: Works if targeted at people with views similar to the candidates
• Hold dinners, speeches, or rallies
• Seek financial aid from interest groups and Political Action Committees
• Interest group: organization of individuals with similar policy goals who enter the political process to influence legislation that affects the organization's interest
• Two types:
• Institutional Interest Groups: Organization represented in Washington by another individual or organization
  
• Membership interest group: Organization that represents a specific group of people

• Fund campaigns, provide testimony for campaigns, and recruit members to volunteer for candidates (electioneering)
• Have become Political Action Committees
• Purpose is to raise and distribute funds to advocate the political goals of its members
• Public has a negative view of PACs and interest groups
• Many feel that they are buying votes
• PACs say that they are gaining access to the system to achieve a voice in public policy

Campaign Finance Reform:

• Enacted campaign finance reform due to criticism directed toward interest groups
• Passed in 1971, 1974, and 1976
• Limited PACs to only donating $5,000 to candidates
• Soft money: Given to parties for general use (McCain-Feingold Act)
• Buckley v. Valeo: Set precedent regarding PACs
• According the the first amendment PACs have the right to spend money indirectly to support a candidate

• Federal Election Commission: Independant agency of the executive branch.
• Made of 6 members
• requires time disclosure of campaign finance date, paces limits on campaign contributions and campaign expenditures, and provides public funding
• Mandates that contribution f more than $5,000 must be reported within 48 hours of its receipt
• gives public funds to presidential campaigns
• Candidate may not spend more than the subsidy and may not accept campaign funds from any other source
• A minor party candidate: To be eligible the party must be listed on the ballot and poll at least 5% on the voes on the last election
  

TERMS TO KNOW:
Campaign Finance Reform: The political effort to change the involvement of money in politics, primarily in political campaigns.
Electioneering:Direct interest group involvement in the electoral process. Political Action Committees (PACs) participate in electioneering by helping to fund campaigns, providing testimony, and recruiting members to volunteer for candidates.
Federal Election Commission:A six-member bipartisan agency created by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974. The FEC administers campaign finance laws, enforces compliance with their requirements, and provides public funding for several parts of the presidential election process.
Fund raising Tactics: Strategies that political contenders use to raise money for their campaigns. Direct mail, rallies, and seeking financial aid from interst groups are examples of fundraising tactics
Institutional Interest Group: An organization represented in Washington by another individual or organization. For example, the Ford Motor Company, the National League of Cities, and the U.S. Conference of Mayors have representation in Washington lobbying for benefit of their organizations.
Interest Group:An organization of individuals with similar policy goals who enter the political process to influence legislation that affects the organization’s interests.
Membership Interest Group: An organization that represents a specific group of people. For example, the American Association for Retired Persons (AARP) lobbies for individuals over age 65.
Political Action Committees:
When a corporation, union, or some other interest group becomes directly involved in the electoral process by funding campaigns, providing testimony for campaigns, and recruiting members to volunteer for particular candidates, called electioneering, they become a Political Action Committee (PAC). The main purpose of a PAC is to raise and distribute funds to advocate the political goals of its members.
Publicity: Free news coverage that political candidates try to gain by making newsworthy appearances in their community in order to create exposure for their campaigns.
Soft Money: Political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grass-roots level (buttons, pamphlets, yard signs, etc.). Soft money is sometimes used to advance a particular political campaign in such a manner as to skirt the legal limits on how much money individuals or organizations are allowed to contribute to political campaigns. Unlike money that goes to the campaign of a particular candidate, such party donations are not subject to contribution limits.

Government-Chap4-Module3-

Demographics:

• Study of the characteristics of the human population: Demography
  
  • Shows what motivates various groups to become active on certain issues and why some groups are more likely to show up on election day
    
  • Categories:
    
    • Age: Under 25 -Low turn out rate
      
    • Gender: Men once dominant, but with women voting rights this is changing
      
    • Race: More white people vote than any other to vote
      
    • Education: Highly educated are more likely to participate in politics; high school drop outs show the lowest records
      
    • Income Level: Higher level are more active, blue collar works participate more than white collar or unemployed workers
      

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Intensity:
  

• Chances of voting: Voter Intensity:
  
  • Higher:
    
    • Strong feelings about voting
      
    • Person stake
      
    • Interest in hot issue
      
    • Feel connected to political system
      
  • Lower:
    
    • Vote make a difference
      
    • Not compelled
      
    • No interest
      
    • No knowledge of candidates or issues
      
  • Related to Political Efficacy:
    
    • Internal:
      
      • Refers to how well people understand the system or get involved or stand on the political sidelines
        
      • People who have strong understand of issues and candidates
        
    • External:
      
      • Whether people believe if their efforts have a difference
        
      • If they think they can make a difference they have High External Efficacy
        
  • Issue Saliency:
    
    • Whether they believe issues make a difference in their lives
      
  • Consensus: Large amount of voters have the same opinion on topic; causes people to become apathetic and do not think their vote will make a difference
    
  • Polarization: Highly divided nation causes people to become more opinionated and will become more active to make sure that their vote and thoughts are heard
    

Government-Chap 4-Module 2

Part 1:

Functions of Parties in America:

• Political party: Group of people who try to influence the government by getting their candidate elected
• Repub. and Demo. have dominated
• They are distinguished by their political ideologies

• Four functions:
• Crate a rally point for diverse groups that share economical, social, or political concerns
• Simplify the voting process for the electorate:
• Limit the number of those who can run by sponsoring only the ones they think best suited

• Generate excitement about an election:
• Organize rallies, parades, conventions, ect. to get a voters attentions.

• Originizing the government:
• State and federal legislatures are centered on the parties due to the fact that they had to become affiliated with the parties to become elected
• Some affiliations have led to partnerships, which mean the office holder will base their decisions on the parties interest

• Accountability: People hold their political parties responsible for making sure officeholders fulfill promises

Part 2:

Organization of Parties:

• Organized like the federal government
• Has offices at the national, state and local levels
• National Committee:
• Haded by national chairperson
• Guides party between elections and promotes the party throughout states
• Organizes the party's national convention:
• Meets during election years to formalize the nomination of a presidential candidate
  

• Maintains influence at the national level through congressional campaign committees and the party members in office

• State Committee:
• Does many of the same things as the national committee
• Solidifies party. finds new candidates, and raises campaign funds
• State committees become very active during election years
• They host fund raisers and circulate literature about issues and party agenda
• Help orginize primary elections
• Between the election years, they disappear and become concerned with state and national legislatures
• They act as special interest groups and lobbyists

• Local Committees:
• Centered on state districts or precincts
• Have a chair person ho works towards getting people to vote by sponsoring registration drives, recruiting new people, and finding local candidates

• Some committees became political machines during the 1800s and into the 1900s
• Dominated party activities at their respective levels
• Demo. were successful in recruiting immigrants by helping them to get established upon entering the country
• Using these modes of operations, the parties functioned largely as welfare organization, they controlled elections though corrupt means
• Political machines still exist today, thought not at the same level
• The corruption has disappeared thanks to voter registration requirements and competitive bidding laws

• Within the Party:
• Many people are rank-and-fill members: only purpose is to vote
• Political regulars: those who take an active role in politics such as working at the polls, taking non-leadership party roles, contributing money, and voting among party lines.
• Tend to compromise on issues and are concerned with winning the election

• Party Activists: Deeply concerned about party functions and become highly involved in the electoral process
  
• Donates funds, demand a voice in the agendas, and have a strong belief in their part's ideology

• Party Purists: tend to be ideologues
  
• Put issues ahead of winning elections and withhold support from candidates who do not share their stance on issue

TERMS TO KNOW:
Ideologue: Individual with strong philosophical or ideological leanings. Generally unwilling to budge to compromise or work with others with differing views.
Local Committee: A committee within a political party, it is centered on state districts or precincts. These committees have a chairperson and work toward getting people to vote by sponsoring registration drives, recruiting new party members, and finding local candidates.
National Chairperson: One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. The national chairperson is responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party and is usually hand-picked by the presidential nominee.
State Committees: Committees within a political party that work to solidify the party, find new candidates for state office, and raise campaign funds. Every state has its own party committees, and the chairpersons of the state committees typically act on behalf of people already in office, such as senators or governors.
Rank-and-Fill: Political party members whose main participation in politics is usually voting in primary and general elections. These members tend to vote straight party tickets in elections and follow the leads of local party officials.
Primary Elections: Election held to select the candidates for an upcoming general election.
Political Machines: A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage, to win votes and to govern.
Political Ideology: A coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose. It helps give meaning to political events, personalities, and policies.
Party Regulars: Political party members who typically work at polls, take lesser party roles, contribute money to campaigns, and vote along party lines. These members tend to compromise on important issues, and they are mostly concerned with winning elections.
Party Purists: Political party members with the highest level of political involvement. These members put issues ahead of winning elections, withhold support from candidates who do not share their stance on issues, and are usually very active in special interest groups. If purists feel like a party ignores their concerns, they often break away and form a third party.
Party Activists: Political party members who are deeply concerned about party functions and highly involved in the electoral process. These members donate funds, demand a voice in party agendas, and have a strong belief in their party’s ideology.
Partnerships: Strong party affiliations that result in officeholders basing their decisions on the party’s interests.
National Convention:The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party’s platform.
National Committee: One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. The national committee is composed of representatives from the states and territories.

Government-Chap 4-Module 1

Part 1:

Political Party Eras

• Different political parties
• The first political parties:
• Democratic-Republican:
• Create by Jefferson
• Congress should dominate the central government
• "Equal rights for all, special privileges for none
• Got support from agricultural areas
• Dominated the government from Jefferson's presidency to the civil war
  

• Federalist:
• Create by Hamilton
• Strong federal government
• Dominated urban areas in the north
  

• Democratic party:
• Came from th democratic republican
• Jackson was one
• No strong central government
• National bank
• Elitism

• Whig:
• Led by Webster and Cly
• Supported by eastern planters
• Defends constitutional federal authority and high protective tariff
• Disappeared after a while

• Republican:
• Lincoln: Marked the start of main power until great depression

• Progressive:
• 1900's
• stock market crashes and great depression led to America realigning parties
• Strong view on finding depression solutions
• Republicans thought to let it fix itself
• Reunited the North and South democrats
• Led by Roosevelt
• Democrats held power until 1968

• Now only the Democratic and Republican parties have the main support o the country and government
  

Part 2:
-Always two parties dominate
~Occasionally a third comes up
~Founded by single issue or extreme ideology or from splintering off main parties
~ The strongest third parties have an innovative platform, new ideas, can get issues that get accepted by the major parties
~Limited by design of electoral college
~everywhere but Kentucky and Maine the candidate with popular vote gets all electoral votes
~Requires cash to funding
Eligibility for Federal Subsidies:
~Party has to be on ballot
~5% of all votes into last election
~Can effect voting by getting votes away from candidates, leaving the road open for others

TERMS TO KNOW

Democratic-Republican party: 1776-1824, members supported legislation that helped the common man and were proponents of strong state governments
Democratic Party: Originated from the Demo-Repub. party. Jackson was an early party leader and changed the name of the party
Federalist Party: 1796-1824; members were wealthy men. Supported a strong central government. Hamilton was a strong supporter
Political party: Anthony Downs "A team of men seeking to control the government apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election
Progressive Party: Formed during the 1900s. Factions of major parties that were opposed to extreme conservatism and concentrated on making America a more democratic society.
Republican Party: Major political party. Formed curing 19503. Original members were former Whigs.
Whig Party: 1828-1856; led by Daniel Webster and Henry lay were leaders. Members were opposed to Jaksonian democracy and dedicated to defending federal authority. Slavery split the party in half
Third Parties: Electoral contenders other than the two major parties. Third parties can influence elections, thought the rarely win

AP Government-Chap 3-Module 2-

Cooperative Federalism

• Government that consisting of multiple layers
  
• Dual Federalism: State, county, and municipal government are separate entities bound by federal government
  
  • Grew until Great Depression
    
    • Roosevelt created New Deal Legislation to help depression
      
      • Created Cooperative Federalism:
        
        • Shared responsibilities and policies
          
        • Shared costs and programs and administrative roles
          
      • 14th amendment: shifted presidential toward national supervision of the states
        

        
        

  Fiscal Federalism
  

• National government provides grants and funing to states
  
  • Originated from confederation period to fund farmer education
    
  • Now covers public housing, urban development, and school lunches
    
  • Refusing regulations will cause government to take away funding which will hurt sate
    
  • Grants:
    
    • Categorical:
      
      • Heavily regulated
        
    • Formula:
      
      • Defined rules
        
    • Project:
      
      • Creates competition
        
    • Block:
      
      • Few restrictions
        
  • Conditions and Aid:
    
    • Difficult to meet
      
  • Devolution:
    
    • Concept of scaling back the size and activities of the national government and giving more control over domestic programs to the states
      
    • Extends to local governments and even to non-profit groups through second or third order devolution
      

      
      

  Terms to Know
  

• Black Grants: Given to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services. Relatively few restrictions
  
• Categorical Grants: Federal grants used for specific purposes or areas of state and local spending. Many regulations
  
• Cooperative Federalism: System of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government.
  
• Devolution: Scaling back of the size and activities of the national government
  
• Dual Federalism: A system of government where the national government and state governments have distinct realms of authority that do not overlap
  
• Fiscal Federalism: The model of spending, taxing, and providing, grants in the federal system
  
• Formula Grants: Federal categorical grants distributed according to a defined set of rules specified in legislation or in administrative regulations
  
• 14th Amendment: "No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States
  
• Marble Cake Federalism: Cooperative federalism, where government share responsibilities
  
• Project grants: Awarded to states for specific purposes and given on the basis of the merits of applications
  
• Revenue-Sharing Program: A form of federal aid in which a pool of federal tax collections is given to the states as "shared money" with no restrictions
  
• Unfunded Mandates: Under-funded legislation pass by Congress.
  

AP Government-Module-Chap 3-Part 1-

Defining federalism:

• Two or more governments share power over the same constitutes
  
• Keeps government from holding too much power over the people
  
• Anti-feds. Feared a strong national government, and focused on the protection in individual rights
  
  • Felt the constitution was meant to protect the wealthy
    
  • Thought the national gov, should not be focused on economic gain
    
• Hamilton, Madison, and Jay wrote the federalist papers in response
  
• Dual Federalism: took thing a step further: separated state and national government
  
  • Each layer would maintain its own sphere of government
    
  • Federal government connects layers while keeping them separate
    

  
  

• Unitary government:
  
  • Puts all nations power with centralized government
    
• Confederation:
  
  • Weak central government dominated forms stronger state ones
    
    • UN
      

      
      

  Separation of National and State Governments
  

• Gives separate but equal powers to the state and national government
  
  • State has reserved powers
    
    • "Police Power"
      
      • Power to tax
        
      • Borrow Money
        
      • Define crimes
        
      • Punish criminals
        
  • National government has delegated powers
    
    • Enumerated: Outlined in constitution
      
      • Declare war
        
      • Regulate foreign and interstate commerce
        
      • Conduct foreign relations
        
      • Coin money
        
      • Maintain a military
        
    • Implied: Needed to carry out enumerated powers
      
      • Elastic clause gives the Congress the power to make laws needed to carry out their duties"
        
    • Inherent: Power considered a national duty of any government
      
      • Controlling immigration
        
      • Acquiring new territory
        
  • Supremacy Clause give national government an upper edge
    
  • State governments are given all power the national government doesn't have by the 10th amendment
    
  • Three debates:
    
    • Implied powers: McCulloch vs. Maryland
      
    • Commerce powers: Gibbons vs. Ogden; 1824
      
    • Civil war: Calhoun: Nullification
      

      
      

  Terms To Know
  

• Concurrent Powers: Powers shared and exercised jointly under the Constitution by both national and state governments.
  
• Confederation: A way of organizing a nation or group of nations so that the central government is loosely formed and dominated by the stronger state governments
  
• Delegated Powers: The powers granted to the national government by the Constitution
  
• Dual Federalism: A system of government where the national government and state governments have distinct realms of authority that do not overlap
  
• Elastic Clause: Clause in the Constitution that that authorizes Congress to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers
  
• Federalism: A way of orginizing a nation so that two or more governments share power over the same constituents
  
• Enumerated Powers: Powers of the federal government that are given directly in the Constitution; for Congress, these powers are listed in Article 1, Section 8
  
• Federalist Papers: Collection of 85 articles written as political theory in defense of the Constitution of the US and federalism
  
• Implied Powers
  
• Inherent Powers: Powers that are not expressly delegated by the Constitution, but held by any national government of a sovereign state
  
• Layer Cake Federalism: Used to describe dual federalism as a system with distinct layers of a government, each with their own sphere of influence
  
• McCulloch v Maryland: Supreme Court decision that establishing the supremacy of the national government over state governments
  
• Reserved Powers: Powers of state government. Powers that are not given to the national government, but which are not denied to the states
  
• Supremacy Clause: Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, the laws of the national government, and treaties the superlative law of the land when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits
  
• Unitary Government: A form of government in which one centralized body is the sole governingaplo unit
  

AP Government –Chap 2- Module 3-

Constitutional Principles

• Presented brief document shown to the public:
  
  • Outlined a framework and procedures of the proposed government
    
  • Set limits on how much power that government would have
    
• Principles:
  
  • Popular sovereignty: Ensures all power belongs to the people
    
  • Limited government: Gov can only do what the people give it the authority to do
    
  • Separation of power: Three parts: legislative branch, executive branch, and judicial branch
    
  • Check and balances: Gives three branches power to restrain the other, preventing any one from gaining absolute power
    
  • Judicial review: Courts have the power to declare an action unconstitutional, making it illegal
    
  • Federalism: Divides power between the national government and state or regional government
    
    • Wanted to prevent central government from getting complete control
      

      
      

  Structure of the Constitution:
  

• Writers made sure the document would lead to a more perfect union
  
  • Original structure:
    
    • Preamble: Mission statement for new nation, outlining the broad purposes the Constitution was designed to address
      
    • Article one: Establishes the rules and requirements for the legislative branch
      
      • House of Reps will be reelected every four years and calls for the number of delegates per state to be based on the population
        
      • Member of the senate must be elected every 6 years, two reps per state
        
      • Defines power of congress
        
        • Tax, borrow, coin money, regulate commerce, grant patents and copyrights, establish a military, and declare war
          
      • Elastic clause: Gives Congress the implied powers to do that which is necessary and proper for carrying out its duties
        
      • Government is prohibited from denying citizens a writ of habeas corpus
        
      • Prevents gov. from issuing bills of attainder
        
      • Prevents gov. from establishing 'ex post facto laws'
        
    • Article 2:
      
      • Rules for executive branch
        
      • President and vice president are to be elected every four years
        
      • Pres. Serves as Commander-in-Chief of the military and the nations chief diplomat
        
      • Power to appoint federal judges, grant reprieves and pardons, and make treaties
        
      • Civil officers may be removed from office by impeachment
        
    • Acticle 3:
      
      • Creates supreme court
        
      • Allows all federal judges to serve for life
        
      • Guarantees a person accused of a federal crime the right to jury trial
        
    • Article 4:
      
      • Outlines the relationship between the states
        
      • Requires each state to give full faith and credit to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states
        
      • Gives full privileges and immunities to the citizens of each state
        
      • Rules for creating new states
        
    • Article 5:
      
      • How amendment are made
        
      • 2/3rds vote required
        
      • Amended 27 times
        
    • Article 6:
      
      • Outlines transfer of debt to new gov.
        
      • Supremacy clause
        
    • Article 7:
      
      • Ratifying constitution: needed 9 out of 13 states
        

        
        

  Need to Know Terms:
  

  Bill of Attainder: Bill passed by a legislature imposing a penalty on an individual or group, holding them responsible for a crime without trial
  

  Elastic Clause: Clause that authorizes Congress to pass laws to carry out the enumerated powers
  

  Electoral College: A unique American institution, created by the Constitution, providing for the selection of the president by electors from each state. Although the Electoral College vote usually reflects a popular majority, the winner-take-all rule gives power to big states.
  

  Enumerated Powers: Powers of the federal government that are given directly in the Constitution; for Congress, these powers are listed in Article I, Section 8 and include the power to coin money, declare war, and impose taxes.
  

  Ex Post Facto Laws: Laws that make actions criminal after they have occurred. Prohibited by Article I, Section 9 of the Constitution.
  

  Federalism: A way of organizing a nation so that two or more governments share power over the same constituents. Sovereignty is shared between the governments.
  

  Fell Faith and Credit Clause: A clause in Article IV, Section 1 of the Constitution requiring each state to recognize the official documents and civil judgments rendered by the courts of other states.
  

  Judicial Review: The power of the Supreme Court to determine whether acts of Congress--and by implication, the executive branch--are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Judicial review is a basic principle of the Constitutional system and was established by Chief Justice John Marshall in the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison in 1803.
  

  Supremacy Clause: Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, the laws of the national government, and treaties the superlative law of the land when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits.
  

  Writ of Habeas Corpus: A court order that prevents arbitrary imprisonment by requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.
  

  
  

AP Government -Chap 2 Module 2-

Articles of Confederation

• Idea of organizing a unified government was not a new idea
  
  • Proposed during French and Indian war
    
• Ben Franklin proposed Albany plan of Union:
  
  • Annual congress of delegates for all 13 colonies
    
    • Organize military
      
    • Regulate trade
      
    • Collect taxes
      
  • Had support of people at meeting, but no colony ratified it and Britain would not endorse it
    
  • Laid ground for future America
    
• During revolutionary war a unified government was established
  
• Articles of Confederation:
  
  • Adopted in 1777
    
  • Enacted in 1781
    
  • Established a league of friendship for security and defense
    
  • Limited power to government
    
  • Each state held power and freedom
    
  • Colonies had a national identity
    
  • Allowed passage of Northwest Ordinance of 1787
    
    • New state creation
      
    • Outlawed slavery in territory
      
    • Set aside land for education
      
    • Encouraged development of land
      
  • National gov. with no real power was ineffective
    
  • Unable to regulate commerce, economic rivalry between states occurred while the government could do nothing
    
  • Led to territorial conflicts and civil unrest
    
  • Armed uprising: Shay's Rebellion
    
    • Led to debt relief being approved
      
    • This and other rebellions led to showing the weakness of the Articles
      

      
      

  The State of Constitutions:
  

• Colonies drafted their own state constitutions
  
  • Combined Britain's legal respect for status, fairness, and due process with American inclusions such as individualism
    
  • Checks and balances in legislative government; division of power
    
    • Executive veto, judicial review, and legislative confirmation of appointments
      
  • Civil liberties protected
    
  • Legal voting requirements, lower requirements for political offices
    
  • Women excluded in the constitutions, slaves were not human beings
    
  • Farmers would appeal to state legislatures for relief from debt
    
    • Series of funding denials followed=Caused frustrations
      
      • Shay's Rebellion
        
  • Continental congress could not help, they did not have power over states
    
    • Congress was busy with debts from the Revolution
      
    • Depression in colonies were making things worse
      
    • France and Spain restricted trade and closed ports to American trade
      

  
  

  The U.S. Constitution
  

• 1786 :
  
  • Depression
    
  • Convention in Maryland arranged in hopes of finding a solution
    
    • Only 5 states sent delegates
      
    • Actions put off until all states were represented
      
  • May:
    
    • Philadelphia convention
      
      • 12 delegates; RI did not show up
        
      • Began writing a new doc
        
      • All goals were different
        
        • Discussions were unfocused
          
        • Talked about sovereignty, land protection, right protection
          
      • Agreed on the dangers of factions and parties and the need to control them
        
      • Found common ground on several issues:
        
        • State of human nature
          
        • Causes of political conflict
          
        • Objects of government
          
        • Nature of a republican government
          
      • Legislative Rep.
        
        • Two Proposals:
          
          • New Jersey Plan:
            
            • Equal representation regardless of population
              
          • Virginia Plan:
            
            • Representation based on population
              
        • Sherman and Johnson proposed The Great Compromise
          
          • Would have a…
            
            • Senate: two members from each state
              
            • House of Reps.: Based on population
              
      • Slavery:
        
        • Those who wanted to abolish it met great conflict with Southern reps.
          
        • Decided congress could limit future importation
          
        • South wanted slaves to be counted for reps.
          
          • North replied that if they were being represented then they should be counted for taxation
            
          • Met with the 3-5ths Compromise: 3 of 5 slaves counted
            
      • Stronger executive braches with national court system
        
      • Agreed to allow:
        
        • Regulation of nations commerce and economy
          
        • Power to levy taxes
          
        • Pay debts
          
        • Borrow money
          
        • Create money and regulate its value
          
        • Regulate domestic and international commerce
          
        • Establish bankruptcy laws
          

        
        

  TERMS TO KNOW:
  

  Albany Plan of Union: Proposal by Ben Franklin that called for an annual congress of delegates with the authority to organize military forces, regulate trade, and collect taxes. Not ratified.
  

  Articles of Confederation: Adopted in 1777 and enacted in 1781, the Articles of Confederation created a model for what later became the United States Government by instituting a government with a unicameral legislature and leaving most authority with the state legislatures.
  

  Check and Balances: An important part of the Madisonian model designed to limit government's power by requiring that power be balanced among the different governmental institutions. These institutions continually restrict or check one another's activities, reflecting Madison's goal of setting power against power.
  

  Connecticut Compromise: The compromise reached at the Constitutional Convention that established two houses of Congress: the House of Representatives, in which representation is based on a state's share of the U.S. population, and the Senate, in which each state has two representatives. Also known as the "Great Compromise."
  

  Factions: Interest groups that develop from the unequal distribution of property or wealth. Today's parties or interest groups are what James Madison had in mind when he warned in Federalist Paper No. 10 of the instability in government caused by factions.
  

  Jew Jersey Plan: Proposed at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, the New Jersey Plan called for equal representation of each state in Congress, regardless of the state's population.
  

  Northwest Ordinance: Officially titled ''An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States North-West of the River Ohio,'' the Northwest Ordinance was passed on July 13, 1787. It encouraged development of the area that eventually became the states of Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and it established a method for new state creation, outlawed slavery in the territory, and set aside land for education.
  

  Philadelphia Convention: In May of 1787, delegates representing 12 of the 13 states attended a convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. However, the delegates chose to write a new document, which became the United States Constitution.
  

  Shay's Rebellion: A series of attacks on courthouses by a small group of farmers led by Revolutionary War captain Daniel Shays to block farm foreclosure proceedings.
  

  3-5ths Compromise: Compromise between the Northern and Southern states at the Constitutional Convention stipulating that 3 of every 5 slaves would be counted for purposes of representation and taxation.
  

  Virginia Plan: Proposed at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, the Virginia Plan called for representation of each state in Congress in proportion to that state's share of the U.S. population.
  

  
  

AP Government -Module Notes- Chap 2 Part 1-

Thomas Paine's "Common Sense"

• The idea of separating with England was generally discarded by many of the colonists, including leaders as late an January 1776
  
• Penalties for treason, such as hanging, were severe and kept the colonists loyal
  
• The high taxes, strict regulations, and foreign soldiers weakened the allegiance to the crown
  
• Thomas Paine
  
  • One time corset maker and tax collector
    
  • Wrote 'Common Sense' in January 1776
    
    • Called the king a 'Royal Brute'
      
    • Paine was rude in his letter compared to previous ones sent by other colonialist, which were humble and gracious
      
    • Said the government was not Parliament, but a monarchy
      
    • Authority of all government officials should come from popular consent
      
    • Concept of an island ruling a continent deified naturla law
      
    • Called for an end to the colonists' political wavering over British rule and promoted the idea of an American republic where free citizens were in control
      
    • Within months of its release 150,000 copies of Common Sense circulated through the colonies
      
    • Inspired Patriots to break from tradition and support independence
      
  • Published another work called The American Crisis, No 1
    
    • From this comes the battle cry of the American Revolution
      

      
      

Declaration of Independence

• Prohibitory Act was passed by Britain in December 1775
  
  • Closed all colonial ports and defined resistance to the Crown as treason
    
  • 2nd Continental Congress responded by authorizing privateers to operate against British shipping
    
  • Discovered that the British were hiring foreign mercenaries to crush resistance
    
    • Thoughts of mercenaries colonists concluded that a peaceful reconciliation was not possible
      
• Continental Congress open trade ports to international trading
  
• June 7, 1776 Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee introduced the idea that the US should be free
  
  • Said they should break from England, but Congress believed a more formal explanation was needed to unify the colonies, secure foreign assistance, and justify their actions to the world
    
  • Delegates from the middle colonies were reluctant to support the separation and postponed a vote
    
• Congress appointed a committee consisting of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, and Thomas Jefferson to prepare a formal declaration
  
  • Committee selected Jefferson to write the first draft
    
  • Final version submitted to congress on June 28th, 1776
    
• Jefferson's writing
  
  • Included several familiar ideas
    
  • Came from discussions on congress, writings of John Locke, government proclamation
    
  • Three Parts
    
    • Preamble: natural rights
      
      • People have right to overthrow government if they infringe their rights
        
    • Draws parallels with Common Sense
      
      • Lists the wrong doings of the king
        
    • Justifies colonists actions by documenting the colonists attempts at a peaceful resolution
      
      • Declared the colonies independence
        
• July 4th 1776, Congress approved the declaration
  
• Had influence on other countries
  
• Remains an inspiration to all
  

  
  

  Need to Know Terms:
  

• Common Sense: Thomas Paine's essay supporting the colonies split from England
  
• Declaration of Independence: Drafted by Thomas Jefferson and approved in 1776, stated grievances against the British monarch and declared independence
  
• Natural Rights: Rights inherent in human beings, not dependence on governments. Include life, liberty, and property.
  

AP Government -Vocab Module Notes-Chap 1

Module Notes:

Democracy: Aform of government, system f selecting policy makers and a way of orginizing so that policy represents and respond to the publics prefereces

Dictatorship: A form of ogvernment in which one person controls all aspects of governing, the general populatuib has little or no political participation, and their rights are restricted

Direct Democracy: System or process that depends on the voice of the people (and not representatives), usually through referendums or initiatives, to make public policy decisions

Elite $ class Theory: A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite will rule, regaurdless of the formal necessities of governmental orginization

Hyperpluralism: A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakend.

Indirect Democracy: A system also called representative democracy in which the people elect representatives to run teh government and express their sentiments

Linakge institutions: The channels or access points through which issues and people's policy preferences get on the government's policy agenda. Int eh US elections, politcal parties, and interest groupd are the three main

Monarchy: Form of government in which one person has control, claiming power comes from divine rights passed from one generation to another of the royal class to the next

Olgarchy: Form of government called Dictatorship of the party. In which power is shared amoung an exclusive group and people have few rights and limited particiaption in government

Pluralists: A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politcs is mainly a compition amoung groups each one person pessing for its own preferred policies

Policy Agenda: Lists of su bjects or problems to which governemtn closly associated with those official are aying attention

Policy Making: Branches of gov. charged with taking action on political issues. Congress, president, and courts.

Policy making system: Process ny which political problems and communicated by the voted and acted upon by the government policy makers. System begins with the people's needs and expectations. People confront the government and try to influence their agenda

Political Socialization: The process through which an individual acquires political orientations knowledges, feelings, and evaluations regaurding his or her political world

Public Policy: Choice that gov. makes in response to a political issue, A policy is a course of action taken with regard to some problem

Representative Monarchy: Form of governemnt in which the monarch is more of a figurehead, people ahve political and civil rights

Republic: Form of governemnt that derives its power, directly formt e people. Those chosen to govern are responsable for those who elected them

Traditional Democratic Theory: Democratic government makes its decisions. It's cornerstones are equality in voting, effective particpation, enlighten understanding, final control over the agenda and inclusions.

LESSON TWO
Levithan: Influentioal writing by Hobbes describing his theory that government is necessary to give people peace and security, and for these benifits they must surrender some of their natural rights

Magna Carta: Presented to King John of England at Runnymade, outline restrictions to his power and granted certain rights to the barons

Petition of rightaL Members of paliment withheld their consent to increase taxes until Charels I approved this petition. Kept him from unfairly punishing people

Social Contract: Essay by Rousseau, explains his beliefs that government should act for the good of all people and that people have a social responsability and civic duty to be involved in their govenment

Two Treaties of the Government: Locke's essay in which he rejects the claim that monarchs have a divine right to rule. Gov. must act for the good of people and that people have the rights to rebel if it fail to protect their natural rights

English Bills of Rights: Mary of Orange signed this as a condition of their becoming new English monarchs. Ended Monarchs abuse of the people.